Political Posturing Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Political Posturing - Case Study Example Although seeking to determine the political aspects that are involved in the ongoing investigation would necessarily require a much different scope of research, this particular analysis will seek to be solely neutral and concentric upon perceived and possible violations of law that have taken place as well as seeking to explain these to the reader. Finally, as a means of analyzing the Solyndra debacle within the terms of economic thought, this particular analysis will consider the words and philosophy of Milton Friedman. With regards to the first potential law that could very well apply to the Solyndra collapse and actions preceding this, the reader can and should understand that unlawful and unethical accounting practices have been evidenced within businesses and corporate entities for as long as the government has been in existence. Such unethical and illegal accounting practices have been the cause for the collapse of such corporations as Enron and Lehman Brothers. Ultimately, the desire to engage in such a process is born out of two distinct factors (Antle, 2012). The first of these is with regards to representing an unfavorable economic situation as a favorable or neutral one. Similarly, the secondary reason for engaging in such an unethical and illegal practice is due to a hope that by affecting such a sleight of hand, the firm will be able to turn around its fortunes and proved to be profitable in the very near future. Accordingly, individuals within the decision-making structure of Solyndra are accused by the federal government of accounting fraud due to the fact that federal prosecutors believe they misrepresented key profitability and earnings data as a means of securing further federal aid and loans. Although it is not the purpose of this particular analysis to seek to judge Solyndra based upon the accusations which have been elaborated upon bus far in the analysis, it can and should be inferred that although these charges are distinct and severe, it is not unheard of within the corporate world to engage in such practices as having been defined. This does not make them better in any way shape or form; however, this is said to present an overall level of understanding within the mind of the reader that such an unethical and unlawful set of actions falls well within perceivable and expected outcomes that such a firm might have engaged in. If indeed such accusations are true, and ethical framework which could have helped Solyndra to steer clear of such a disastrous course of action would necessarily have been with regards to refusing any further loans based upon faulty or incomplete information.  

Neanderthal Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Neanderthal - Term Paper Example The group of mammals was named Neanderthals under homo sapiens as dubbed as homo sapiens neanderthalensis (Trinkaus, 1978). From the studies conducted on the skeletons, it has been theorized that the Neanderthals lived during the ice age, thus their name. Researchers based their conclusions basically from the general features of the skeletal remains where it was observed that the Neanderthals had short limbs and a deep, wide ribcage which allowed lesser surface area exposed to the atmosphere and making the internal organs embedded deep within the body to make them warm (bbc.co.uk, 2005). Aside from showing their ability to adapt to the extreme cold during the ice age because of their physical features, they also tell about their way of living. For instance, the bone structures show an exaggerated massiveness in the trunk and limbs of the Neanderthal males and females (Trinkaus, 1978). This could be traced to how they got their food, through hunting. Professor John Shea (bbc.co.uk, 2005) concludes from studying the hunting materials of the Neanderthals that the spears they used were not purposely shot fro m afar but were used on a face to face encounter with their prey. Because the tools were not as sharp to have been used in attacking from a distance, the theory is that, the Neanderthals had to wait on the wild animals until they get near before attacking them. This explains the muscle developments of the Neanderthals as shown by the skeletons and also helps to give light to the fractures found in some of the Neanderthal bones. For instance, Shanidar 3 (Trinkaus, 1978) has a scar o the rib which, based from studies, is theorized to be from an injury during a fight with a fellow Neanderthal or an accidental injury. The predecessors of the homo sapiens were found to have a similar brain size to the modern man (bbc.co.uk, 2005; Tattersall

Application of Gas Chromatography in Pharmaceutical Analysis

Application of Gas Chromatography in Pharmaceutical Analysis Chromatography is a physical method of separation in which components to be separated are distributed between two phases, one of which is stationary phase while the other mobile phase move in a definite direction. The stationary phase may be a solid or a liquid supported on a solid or a gel. The mobile phase may be gaseous or liquid. The basis for gas chromatography separation is the distribution of a sample between two phases. one of these phases is a stationary bed of large surface area, and the other phase is a gas which percolates through the stationary bed. The physical state of the mobile phase distinguishes the fundamental type of a chromatographic separation. Liquid chromatography (LC), gas chromatography (GC) and super critical fluid chromatography (SFC) all named for the state of their respective mobile phases. The first person to chromatography was Tswett (1872-1919) the Russian chemist. He used chromatography from the Greek for colour chroma and write- graphein to describe his work on the separation of coloured plant pigments. Until 1930s chromatography in the form of thin-layer and ion-exchange chromatography became a regularly used technique. In 1940 development of partition chromatography and paper chromatography followed by the first disclosure of effective gas chromatography (GC) by Martin and his co-worker James in 1953. GC is a technique for separating volatile substances by percolating a gas stream over a stationary phase. It is a technique that revolutionized analytical chemistry. GC has been applied successfully to numerous compounds in variety of fields. Headspace GC has been used since the 1980s, but only recently has it become part of mainstream of pharmaceutical analysis. In this essay GC technical aspect and its application for pharmaceutical quantitative analysis has been explained. Moreover, the comparative advantage over other techniques and the disadvantage of using GC has been also discussed and reached on some conclusion. 2. Gas Chromatography 2.1 Technical Aspect In GC the components to be separated are carried through the column by an inert gas. Here the mobile phase is a gas, often nitrogen, but sometimes helium, hydrogen or occasionally another gas. It is called the carrier gas. GC is equipped with standard oven for temperature programming, split/split less injection ports and flame ionization detector. The sample mixture is partitioned between the carrier gas and a non volatile solvent (stationary phase ) supported on an inert size-graded solid. The solvent selectively retards the sample components, according to their distribution coefficient, until they form separate bands in the carrier gas. These component bands leave the column in the gas stream and are recorded as a function of time by a detector. This elution technique has the following advantages : The column is continuously regenerated by the inert gas phase. Usually the sample components are completely separated and mixed only with an inert gas making collection and quantitative determinations easy. The analysis time is very short. In general GC is a powerful and widely used technique for the separation, identification and quantitation of components in a mixture. In this technique a sample is converted to the vapor state and a flowing stream of carrier gas sweeps the sample into a thermally -controlled column. In GC the column is usually packed with solid particles that coated with a non-volatile solvent. Retention time is defined from injection of the sample to time a specific sample component is detected. After exiting the column the separated components are detected and a detector response is recorded. Polarity and boiling points of the components are also vital properties in GC separation. While polarity is the major factor governing separation; the boiling points of components of the sample also play a significant role in determining the retention time. Components with higher volatility have lower boiling point. 2.2 Advantages of GC 2.2.1. Speed The entire analysis is completed less than half an hours. The use of gas as the moving phase has the advantage of rapid equilibrium between the moving and stationary phases and allows high carrier gas velocities to be employed. Separations requiring only seconds have been reported, however, analysis time of minutes duration is more common in GC. Preparative scale separations, or resolution of wide-boiling complex samples may require hours. 2.2.2. Resolution The separation of some compounds such as methyl esters of stearic, oleic and linoleic acids by other techniques is extremely difficult or impossible. The boiling point differences are negligible in that the compounds vary only in degree of unsaturation. By using selective solvents, however, GC can provide resolution impossible by distillation or other techniques. 2.2.3. Qualitative Analysis The retention time in GC is that time from injection to peak maxima. This property is characteristic of the sample and the liquid phase at a given temperature. With proper flow and temperature control, it can be reproduced to within 1% and used to identify each peak. Several compounds has only one retention time. This retention time is not influenced by the presence of other components. 2.2.4. Quantitative Analysis The area peak produced for each on chromatogram is proportional to concentration of the peak in GC analysis. This can be used to determine the exact concentration of each component. Accuracy attainable with GC depends upon, detector, integration method and sample concentration. 2.2.5. Sensitivity A major reason for the extensive analytical application of GC is the sensitivity available. The simplest forms of thermal conductivity cells can determine down to 0.1 %.The flame detector easily sees parts per million, and the specific electron capture and phosphorus detectors can measure parts per billion. An advantage of this extreme sensitivity is the small size sample or micro liters of sample are sufficient for complete analysis. This is indeed trace analysis is also easily achieved. It is simple to operate and understand. Interpretation of the data obtained is also rapid and straight forward. The cost of GC is very low compared to the data obtained. 3. Application of GC in Pharmaceutical Analysis The major success of the application of GC in pharmaceutical quantitative analysis is firstly due to the very high efficiencies of separation power, secondly to the extreme sensitivity of the detection of even very small amounts of separated species and finally to the precision and accuracy of the data from quantitative analyses of very complex mixtures. GC analyses are also easy to automate from sample introduction to separation. Because of the above main advantages and its short analysis time and reliable results GC is used as quality control purposes in the pharmaceutical industry. In fact pharmaceutical analysis generally involves two steps; separation of the compound of interest and quantitation of the compounds. The better the separation the easier the quantitation. GC detectors have different responses to each compound. In order to determine quantitative amounts of various compounds in a separation the detector must be calibrated using standards. Standard solutions of sample a re injected and the detector response recorded. Comparison of the standard and sample retention times allows qualitative analysis of the sample. Comparison of the peak area of the standards with that of the sample allows quantitation of analyte. Due to this fact, GC is widely used as a routine analytical technique in pharmaceutical quantitative analysis mostly used in for the determination of organic volatile impurities and nicotine level during drugs formulation. 3.1. Determination of Organic Volatile Impurities by GC Organic Volatile impurities are residual solvents that are used in and are produced during the synthesis of drug substances, or in excipients used in the production of drug formulations. Many of these residual solvents generally cannot be completely removed by standard manufacturing processes or techniques and are left behind, preferably at low levels. Organic solvents such as acetone, ethyl acetate, isopropyl alcohol, methanol, tetrahydrofuran and toluene frequently used in pharmaceutical industry for the manufacturing of Active Pharmaceutical ingredients therefore ,in manufacturing drug substances and from one or more steps of the synthetic process, volatile solvents can be retained in the end products. Most of the time ethanol and acetone are used in the preparation of the polymeric coating of tablets. On other hand isopropyl alcohol is used in the crystallization of the active ingredient while ethyl acetate is a process solvent for the gel forming polymer. Low levels of these org anic solvents are inevitably present in the drug product even after drying process. These organic volatile residuals affect physiochemical properties of a drug, such as particle size, dissolution rate and stability, but also can present a serious potential health hazard. Very often these solvents, referred to as residual solvents, are carried to the pharmaceutical preparation concerned and making their determination very important. Therefore, GC is superior to other techniques for analysis of these residual solvents. It provide good retention and separation at low oven temperatures. Due to the above fact the content of residual organic solvents in pharmaceutical industry is routinely measured by GC technique. 3.2. Determination of Nicotine by GC Because of its rapid and accurate analytical result; GC is used to determine the nicotine level in pharmaceutical drugs formulation. GC applications in combination with other techniques are also vital in pharmaceutical industries for isolation and characterization of volatile compounds.Currently the use of GC in pharmaceutical quantitative analysis is very usual and include the analysis of samples of active pharmaceutical ingredients and their intermediates as well as in- process testing for residual solvents to optimize the drying process. 4. Discussion and Conclusion 4.1. Discussion The disadvantage of GC are that the components of the sample must be volatile at temperature at which they will not decompose. As there are more involatile materials than there are volatile, and volatility immediately places a serious limitation on the field of application. In addition to these GC is also strongly retained components travel very slowly, or in some cases do not move at all. However, this difficulty can be overcome by using temperature programming of the column to decrease elution time. Temperature programming is the increase of temperature during an analysis to provide a faster and more adaptable analysis. 4.2. Conclusion Even though, GC has a few limitation in field of application due to its high detector sensitivity and high resolving power it is generally used extensively in pharmaceutical industry both in research and quality control purposes.

Peculiar Institutions Reconfiguring Notions of Political Participation Through the Narratives of Hannah Crafts and Harriet Jacobs :: Essays on Politics

Peculiar Institutions Reconfiguring Notions of Political Participation Through the Narratives of Hannah Crafts and Harriet Jacobs In her narrative Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Harriet Jacobs says, â€Å"If the secret memoirs of many members of Congress should be published, curious details would be unfolded† (142). Jacobs here, and throughout her narrative, reveals herself as a political outsider in all possible senses. She does not, herself, know what stories are told in the so-called â€Å"secret memoirs† of white, male, empowered politicians. She can only surmise what frightful and disturbing events and attitudes they must describe. In sharp contrast, Hannah Crafts, author of The Bondwoman’s Narrative, is and presents herself as the most intimate kind of political insider. She is for all intents and purposes – throughout her own story – writing the diary, the secret memoir, of her master, Mr. John Hill Wheeler. A focus on this point of intersection between the two women’s texts takes on a new and uncanny significance when one considers that the actual diary kept by the historical Congressman John Wheeler has been a major tool used in the authentication of the Crafts narrative. This important political figure kept a written record of virtually every day of his adult life. Records reveal, among other things, that at age twenty-one Wheeler became the youngest member ever elected to the North Carolina House of Commons. By his early forties, he would become a permanent presence on Capitol Hill, serving as close counselor and friend to Presidents Pierce, Jackson, Van Buren, Buchanan, and Johnson. He would also later serve as the American Minister to Nicaragua, then a Central American stronghold, where he would try to single-handedly claim the land and institute slavery, inadvertently ruining his political career in the process. That Hannah Crafts lives in and reproduces for the readers’ eyes the most intricate details of those secret political records and relationships ultimately has an enormous impact upon the connections she perceiv es herself as having to other slave women, to white Northern women, and to men of either race. Crafts’ recognition and narration of her unique personal position also subtly but profoundly alters the opportunities for political participation that she conceives as possible. The Bondwoman’s Narrative, written by Hannah Crafts, self-described as â€Å"a fugitive slave, recently escaped from North Carolina,† was uncovered in 2001 and published in 2002 under the auspices of Henry Louis Gates, Jr.

Reflective statement †IRS Essay

After finishing my research project and finally submitting my report, it is necessary that I write a reflective statement on what I have gained from my study. My tutor helped me to change the topic of my research which was â€Å"The link between employee satisfaction and service quality in the hotel industry† to â€Å"How to increase employee retention at the Blue tree hotels†. This helped me be more specific, to focus on a situation on ground, rather than being too general. The broadness of my topic would not help me narrow down to a specific case. This would not help me to draw clear lessons from the project. Being more specific in the project topic statement helped me come up with concise hypothesis for the research. It ultimately made me learn a lot from the project. My methodology was to carry out a filed survey, and sample some of the industries to get information from them. On the advice from my tutor, I changed it to comparative method, which I performed, selecting international hotel chains, such as Marriott, and also using different kinds of case studies in the hospitality industry in order to analyze, compare and opt for the best system and attitude used by them. I got these findings with the intention of implementing them at the Blue Tree Hotels and as a consequence meet the company’s goal. On presenting my idea my tutor, the feedback was negative, but it was helpful as I need pressure to work better. Her guidance led me to the above-discussed process which finally gave me success. At this point I was able to carryout my research with ease and also became considerably successful. The whole process has imparted in me skills and knowledge that are necessary for working on projects, and managing employees for a successful organization or a company. Since the choice of this research project made me to research on employee retention and job satisfaction, it made focus on specific parts of Human Resource management. The ‘employee’ is a very important aspect in an organization, company or institution (Henriques and Sadorsky 199). There are several principles about job satisfaction and retention that I have learned from this project. Furthermore, I have also gained skills in project management, especially in terms of research in order to meet a certain objective. On project management, I was able to sharpen my skills on research. The first thing was the ability to plan my research project (Kumar, 2005). From the topic that my tutor recommended I was able to come up with a research problem. The formulated problem was that the high turn over of employees in various companies has become very expensive. This is fundamentally because the organization or the company loses knowledge and resource they have invested in equipping these people in favor of their competitors (Ramlall, 2003). I was also able to design a model that fit my research project well. I chose on secondary research, which would led me to visit various websites to collect information about how various hotels and hospitality industries had succeeded in maintaining their employees. Secondly, I studied how these companies had achieved their overall goals, based on the principle of employee retention and satisfaction. I chose the highly trusted online data base sites such us Emerald and Ebsco. This formed a good basis of data collection. After identifying this method, I chose the samples to study. These were the best performing companies in this industry. They are Marriot, and Four Seasons. This ultimately led to my writing of the proposal that was accepted by my tutor after following her guidance. In the second step, conducting the study, I was successful in collecting the data from various websites, and studied the data in comparison (Kumar, 2005). I also used books to learn how these companies had applied specific principles in managing this vital resource in the companies. This was in the process of data processing to make them clear during presentation. After successful processing of data, I wrote the report that would easily help in the implementation phase of the project. The report had a very clear explanation on facts about employee retention, loyalty and satisfaction. The aspect I gained through this project is the way to conduct a research and not only stop at the research level but write a report that has conclusions that have clarity and teams can use them to conduct the implementation stage of the project. As I mentioned earlier, I have also come to appreciate the importance of taking care of employees in an organization. Retaining them goes along with how satisfied they are. This becomes a good basis of quality efficient service for the company, institution or organization. In order to maintain competitive advantage, companies have to do all their best to retain the employees they have (Ans and Meganck, 2009). This is because if an organization loses an employee, the quality of the service delivered will be greatly affected, decrease on the efficiency of the service delivery and as a consequence lose guests in addition to profits (Ramlall, 2003). Again, It is clear that in hospitality business, success comes from the loyal employees, since they are committed and trustworthy. This will increase organization’s profitability alongside customer loyalty (Villares and Coelho, 2003). Finally, I learned that increased job satisfaction leads to decreased turnover rates (Smith and Rupp, 2002). From the study I found out that competitive schemes of paying employees, diverse programs of employee motivation, training and reward plans would be very effective in retaining the employees in an organization. Emphatically, such things as opportunities that the companies give in terms of professional growth of the employees also matter. Mutual and hierarchical recognition also are very important in the organization. Lastly the social fabric must be constructed in to encourage teamwork and so cordial relationships among all the workers. This project has made me set for my future career as a manager; for I definitely know that the whole picture of an organization is seen in its employees. Four Seasons rightly confess that, â€Å"Our greatest asset, and the key to our success, is our people† (Four Seasons, 2010). In addition to this I have gained knowledge and skills in research, which will greatly help in project management. This has also sharpened my critic ability, and I will be able to analyze situations keenly, consequently coming up with well judged conclusions.

Computer Networks

– Suresh Khanal Computer Networking Short Questions and Answer www. psexam. com Computer Networking Short Questions and Answers Suresh Khanal Kalanki, Kathmandu [email  protected] com [email  protected] com Published By: http://www. psexam. com contact: [email  protected] com Computer Networking: Short Questions and Answers Published by PS Exam Kalanki, Kathmandu Nepal www. psexam. com Copyright  ©2009 author.No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise except for personal and non-commercial use without the prior written permission of the author. About the Author Suresh Khanal is a native of Kathmandu, Nepal, where he works as a freelance developer, programmer and technical writer/editor. He has been involved in teaching computers science since 1998 and over the years has written several articles and tutorials on Office Appli cations and Web Programming.Khanal holds a Master's of Science Degree in Information Technology Science. In his spare time, he enjoys travelling, posting in forums and play online games. Table of Contents Transmission Media What is transmission media? What are the types of transmission media? Describe bound transmission media. Describe unbound transmission media. Bound Transmission Media Explain twisted pair cable. Explain Co-axial cable. Explain Fiber-Optics cable. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 5 Match the following types of connectors with the cables to which they are used. Compare BNC with UTP Cables Unbound Transmission Media Explain Radio Wave. What is Microwave? List the Advantages of microwaves. What are the Disadvantages of Microwaves? Describe Infra Red. Computer Network What is a computer network? What are the advantages of Networking? Explain Network Services 8 9 9 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 13 What are the five major network services? What is Network Server? What is a client? What is a dedi cated server? What is workstation? What are dumb terminals? Types of Computer Network What is a LAN? What is MAN? What is WAN? Clarify Enterprise WANs.Clarify Global WANs. What are the two types of LAN? Protocols What is a protocol? What are the three major network protocols? Match the following protocols and their functions LAN Topologies What are the two network connection types? Explain Point-to-Point connection type. Explain multipoint connection. What are the basic LAN topologies? Explain Bus Topology. What are the advantages of bus topology? 13 13 13 14 14 14 15 15 16 16 16 17 17 18 18 18 19 20 20 20 21 21 21 23 What are the disadvantages of bus topology? What is Ring Topology? Point out the major advantages of Ring Topology.Point out the disadvantages of Ring Topology. Explain Star Topology. What are the benefits of Star Topology? What are the disadvantages of Star Topology? What are the popular topologies other than basic Topologies? Network Standards What is a Networking St andard? What are the four major industry standards? What is an Ethernet? How an Ethernet Worked? What is Medium Access Control of Ethernet? Explain Ethernet Frame. List some advantages of Ethernet. What are the disadvantages of Ethernet Cabling? What is ARCNet? List the advantages of ARCNet. What are the disadvantages of ARCNet?How does a Token-Passing Protocol works? 24 24 25 25 25 26 26 27 27 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 30 31 32 32 32 Explain Logical Ring Physical Star topology for Token-Passing Standard. 32 List some most useful advantages of Token Ring. 33 Point out the disadvantages of Token Ring. What do you mean by Beaconing and Auto-Reconfiguration? Network Architecture What is Network Architecture? What are the popular Network Architectures? Explain ISO's OSI Architecture Explain IBM's SNA Architecture Networking Model Explain Peer-to-Peer Networking Model. Explain Client/Server Networking Model.Network and Internet Terminologies NICs Hubs/Repeaters Bridges Router Switches Transce ivers Gateway Proxy Serer Firewall Node Wireless Network Internet WWW 34 34 34 34 35 35 36 37 37 37 38 38 39 39 40 41 42 42 43 43 43 43 45 45 IRC CU-SeeMe Telnet Gopher HTML Browsers Dialup Connection IP Address Domain Name URL Web Browsing or Surfing Search Engine Meta Search Engine Internet Access Extranet Intranet Web Index Hypertext Email Email address Inbox Outbox Trash CC 46 47 48 49 49 50 53 53 54 54 54 55 57 57 58 58 58 59 59 59 60 60 61 61 BCC Reply Forward Attachments Bounced Netiquette Emoticons 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 Table of FiguresFigure 1: UTP Cable 2 Figure 2: UTP Cable Connector 2 Figure 3: STP Cable 3 Figure 4: STP Cable Structure 3 Figure 5: Co-Axial Cable 4 Figure 6: Co-Axial Cable Structure 4 Figure 7: Co-Axial Cable Connectors 5 Figure 8: Fibre Optics Cable Structure 6 Figure 9: Fiber Optics Cable 6 Figure 10: AUI Connector 7 Figure 11: BNC Connector 7 Figure 12: RJ45 Connector 8 Figure 13: SC Connector 8 Figure 14: Comparison between Twisted Pairs and Co-Axial C able 9 Figure 15: Radio Wave Transmission 9 Figure 16: Microwave Transmission 10 Figure 17: Microwave Transmitter, Receiver and Repeater 10 Figure 18: Infrared Device Error!Bookmark not defined. Figure 19: Computer Network 12 Figure 20: Workstation 14 Figure 21: Dumb Terminal 15 Figure 22: Wide Area Network 16 Figure 23: Enterprise WAN 17 Figure 24: TCP/IP Structure 18 Figure 25: IPX/SPX Structure 19 Figure 26: Different LAN Topologies 20 Figure 27: Bus Topology 21 Figure 28: Bus Topology Network connected with other network 22 Figure 29: T Connector 22 Figure 30: Different Cable Terminators 23 Figure 31: Ring Topology 24 Figure 32: Star Topology 25 Figure 33: Star Topology 26 Figure 34: Tre Topology Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 35: Mesh Topology Error! Bookmark not defined.Figure 36: Ethernet Network 29 Figure 37: ARCNet Board and Card 31 Figure 38: Network with MSAU 33 Figure 39: ISO's OSI Architecture 35 Figure 40: OSI an SNA Comparision 36 Figure 41: LAN NIC Card 38 Figur e 42: Hub 39 Figure 43: Bridge 40 Figure 44: Router 41 Figure 45: Switch 41 Figure 46: Transceiver 42 Figure 47: Gateway PC 43 Figure 48: Nework with Wireless Stations 44 Figure 49: Tim Berners Lee 45 Figure 50: Yahoo Chat 46 Figure 51: CU SeeMe 47 Figure 52: CU SeeMe Conferencing 48 Figure 53: Telnet Screen 48 Figure 54: Different Browsers Logo 50 Figure 55: Mozilla Firefox 51 Figure 56: Netscape Navigator 51 Figure 57: Internet Explorer 52 Figure 58: Google Chrome 52 Figure 59: IP Address Structure 53 Figure 60: IP Address and Subnet Mask 53Figure 61: Yahoo, Ask, MSN, Google Search Engines Figure 62: Alta Vista Search Engine Figure 63: Lycos Figure 64: Meta Search Engine Figure 65: Web Index Figure 66: Hypertext and Hyper Link Figure 67: Email Client Interface Figure 68: New Email Message Figure 69: Emoticons 55 56 56 57 58 59 60 61 63 Computer Networking Short Questions and Answers Suresh Khanal Kalanki, Kathmandu [email  protected] com [email  protected] com Published By: ht tp://www. psexam. com contact: [email  protected] com Computer Networking Short Questions and Answers Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Transmission Media What is transmission media? Transmission media is a pathway through which data are transmitted in network.We use different types of cables or waves to transmit data. What are the types of transmission media? There are two types of transmission media namely: bound transmission media and unbound transmission media. Describe bound transmission media. Bound transmission media are the cables that are tangible or have physical existence and are limited by the physical geography. Popular bound transmission media in use are twisted pair cable, co-axial cable and fiber optical cable. Describe unbound transmission media. Unbound transmission media are the ways of transmitting data without using any cables. These media are not bounded by physical geography.Microwave, Radio wave, Infra red are some of popular unbound transmission me dia. Bound Transmission Media Explain twisted pair cable. A pair of wires twisted with each other is known as twisted pair cable. A set of four pairs of twisted wires are bundled to form cable. These are the most common medium for LAN. Wires are twisted with each other so as to reduce the interference. http://www. psexam. com Page 1 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 1: UTP Cable Figure 2: UTP Cable Connector Page 2 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam We can find two types of twisted pair cables, namely: Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (STP).The twisted pair cable that is protected against electro-magnetic interference (EMI) is known as STP and the one which is not shielded against EMI is called Unshielded Twisted Pair. Figure 3: STP Cable 1–Jacket 2–Shield-braid 3–Shield-foil 4–Solid twisted pair 5–Drain wire Figure 4: STP Cable Structure http://www. psexam. com Page 3 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Explain Co-axial cable. A solid central conductor surrounded by insulating material and then by a cylindrical shield woven from fine wires is known as co-axial cable. The shield is usually connected to electrical ground to reduce electrical interference. Co-axial cables have broader bandwidth and thus suitable for audio, video data transmission. Figure 5: Co-Axial Cable Figure 6: Co-Axial Cable StructurePage 4 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 7: Co-Axial Cable Connectors Explain Fiber-Optics cable. A cable with central glass tube covered with protective shield which transmit data using photons is fiber optics cable. These cables transmit data via concentrated bursts of laser beams which are carried through bundles of hair thin glass fibers. They have advantages over electronic cables in transmission speed and volume. This technology has revolutionized telecommunication applications which used electron ic cables. Fiber optics cables as free from electromagnetic interference as well as wire tapping. http://www. sexam. com Page 5 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 8: Fibre Optics Cable Structure Figure 9: Fiber Optics Cable Page 6 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Match the following types of connectors with the cables to which they are used. Cable: (a) Thick Coax (100 Base 5), (b) UTP (10 Base-T), (c) Fiber Optics (10 Base-FL) (d) Thin Coax (100 Base 5) Connectors: (1) AUI, (2) BNC, (3) RJ45, (4) SC or ST Type Answer:- a -> 1, b -> 3, c -> 4, d -> 2 Figure 10: AUI Connector Figure 11: BNC Connector http://www. psexam. com Page 7 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 12: RJ45 ConnectorFigure 13: SC Connector Compare BNC with UTP Cables BNC Derived from the thick Ethernet Coaxial Cable Flexibility of adding nodes Lower price and no need of Hub Difficult to locate faults Terminators needed The cabling is comparatively less relia ble Single segment length (node to node) up to 180 meters UTP Derived from telephone cable Decided by Hub ports Needs Hubs Introduction of Hub makes fault finding much easier Terminators not needed Inherently much reliable Single segment length up to 200 meters Page 8 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 14: Comparison between Twisted Pairs and Co-Axial Cable Unbound Transmission MediaUnbound transmission media extend beyond the limiting confines of cabling. They provide an excellent communication alternative for WANS. The lack of physical restrictions provides larger bandwidth as well as wide area capabilities. Unbound media typically operate at very high frequencies. The three types of unbound transmission media are: Radio wave, Micro wave, Infrared Explain Radio Wave. Although Radio waves are prevalent and well understood, we are just beginning to realize their enormous potential as a networking medium. Radio waves can operate on a single or mu ltiple frequency bands. Figure 15: Radio Wave Transmission http://www. psexam. com Page 9 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What is Microwave?Microwaves have been used in data communications for a long time. They have a higher frequency than radio waves and therefore can handle larger amounts of data. Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The transmit station must be in visible contact with the receive station. This sets a limit on the distance between stations depending on the local geography. Typically the line of sight due to the Earth's curvature is only 50 km to the horizon! Repeater stations must be placed so the data signal can hop, skip and jump across the country. Figure 16: Microwave Transmission Figure 17: Microwave Transmitter, Receiver and Repeater Page 10 http://www. psexam. comContribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz. This allows them to carry large quantities of data due to their large bandwidth. List the Advantages of microwaves. a. They require no right of way acquisition between towers. b. They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operating frequencies. c. Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies only a small area. d. High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antennae. What are the Disadvantages of Microwaves? a. Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog. b. Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal. c. Diffracted (split) around solid objects. d.Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected away from receiver. Describe Infra Red. Infrared offers a great unbound photonic solution. Like fiber-optic cabling, infrared communications use light, so they are not bound by the limitations of electricity. Figure 18: Infrared Device http://www. psexam. com Page 11 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Computer Network What is a computer network? Computer Network is a collection of distribut ed intelligent machines that are connected with each other with transmission media for the purpose of data sharing, communication and sharing of computer resources. Figure 19: Computer NetworkWhat are the advantages of Networking? The following are the distinct notes in favor of computer networking. a. The computers, staff and information can be well managed b. A network provides the means to exchange data among the computers and to make programs and data available to people c. It permits the sharing of the resources of the machine d. Networking also provides the function of back-up. e. Networking provides a flexible networking environment. Employees can work at home by using through networks ties through networks into the computer at office. Page 12 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Explain Network ServicesNetwork services are the thing that a network can do. The major networking services are ? ? ? ? ? File Services: This includes file transfer, stor age, data migration, file update, synchronization and achieving. Printing Services: This service produces shared access to valuable printing devices. Message Services: This service facilitates email, voice mails and coordinate object oriented applications. Application Services: This services allows to centralize high profile applications to increase performance and scalability Database Services: This involves coordination of distributed data and replication. What are the five major network services? Major Network Services are: a. b. c. d. e.File Services Print Services Message Services Application Services Database Services What is Network Server? Network Server is a computer in Network that is designated to provide one or more network service. For example file server, database server etc. What is a client? A computer in network that connects to the server and uses the network services to perform user's tasks is a client. http://www. psexam. com Page 13 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What is a dedicated server? A network server designated to provide one particular service is known as dedicated server. For example if a computer is assigned for database service only then that computer is known as dedicated database server. What is workstation?A workstation is a node in network that is more powerful and can handle local information processing or graphics processing. A workstation usually has an inexpensive, small hard disk to carry out local tasks. Figure 20: Workstation Some workstations that have no disk drive of their own is known as diskless-workstation or dumb terminals. They terminals completely rely on LAN for their access. Network operating system lets the node work as if all the resources at the server belong to the node itself. What are dumb terminals? Those Workstations that have no disk drive of their own and rely completely on LAN for their access are called dumb terminals.The network operating system lets these terminals work as if all th e resources at the server belong to the workstation itself. Page 14 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 21: Dumb Terminal Types of Computer Network Computer networks fall into three classes regarding the size, distance and the structure namely: LAN (Local Area Network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), WAN (Wide Area Network). A LAN links a small group of functionally similar workstations within a local geographic area such as a series of adjacent cubicles or offices on the same floor. Once the network expands to include other floors or divers office within a metropolitan area, it becomes a MAN. Finally, a WAN is simply a LAN of LANs.WANs expand the boundaries of networking to a global or even galactic scale. What is a LAN? A LAN is a Local Area Network, within a single building or a specific confined space. LANs typically comprise only one transmission media type such as coaxial cable or twisted pair. LANs are characterized by comparatively high -speed communications. These high speeds are possible because LANs use one kind of cable which generally is limited to 5 km or less. http://www. psexam. com Page 15 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What is MAN? MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Networks. MAN is larger than a LAN and as its name implies, covers the area of a single city.MANs rarely extend beyond 100 KM and frequently comprise a combination of different hardware and transmission media. The two most important components of MANs are security and standardization. Security is important because information is being shared between dissimilar systems. Standardization is necessary to ensure reliable data communication. What is WAN? A wide area network is simply a LAN of LANs. WANs connect LANs that may be on opposite sides of a building, across the country or around the world. WANS are characterized by the slowest data communication rates and the largest distances. WANs can be of two types: an enterprise WAN and Globa l WAN. Figure 22: Wide Area NetworkClarify Enterprise WANs. An enterprise WAN connects an entire organization including all LANs at various sites. This term is used for large, widespread organizations such as corporations, universities and governments. Page 16 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 23: Enterprise WAN Clarify Global WANs. Global WANs also span the world but they do not have to connect LANS within a single organization. The Internet is an example of a global WAN. It connects diverse locations, organizations and institutions throughout the world. Global WANS can be public or private. Private WANs are called Intranet which belongs to an organization.Public WANs are open to everybody so that anybody can connect and use the resources and services available. What are the two types of LAN? There are basically two types of Local Area Networks namely: Arcnet and Ethernet. http://www. psexam. com Page 17 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Ex am Protocols What is a protocol? The term protocol refers to a set of rules and procedures that govern the transmission of messages over a physical networking medium. The most common network protocols are: (a) TCP/IP, (b) IPX/SPX and (c) NetBEUE What are the three major network protocols? The three major network protocols are: 1. TCP/IP 2. IPX/SPX (Used in Novell Netware) 3. NetBEUE (Product of Microsoft Co. ) Figure 24: TCP/IP StructurePage 18 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 25: IPX/SPX Structure Match the following protocols and their functions (a) http, (b) pop, (c) ftp, (d) smtp, (e) MIME, 1. Send email messages 2. Transfer multimedia information 3. Send email attachment 4. Transfer files in servers and clients computers 5. Receive email messages Answer: (a) -> 2, (b) -> 5, (c) -> 4, (d) -> 1, (e) -> 3 http://www. psexam. com Page 19 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam LAN Topologies The term topology defines the geographic arrangem ent of networking devices. It describes the actual layout of the network hardware.Given the location of workstations and peripherals, the goal of topology is to find the most economical and efficient way to connect all the users to the network resources while providing adequate capacity to handle user demands, maintain system reliability and minimize delay. Figure 26: Different LAN Topologies The selection of a topology for a network can not be done in isolation as it affects the choice of media and the access method used. Because it determines the strategy used in wiring a building for a network and deserves some careful study. What are the two network connection types? The two different network connection types are (a) point-to-point connection and (b) multipoint connection. Explain Point-to-Point connection type. A point-to-point connection is a direct link between two devices such as a computer and a printer.Most of today's point-to-point connections are associated with modems a nd PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) communications. Page 20 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Explain multipoint connection. A multipoint connection is a link between three or more devices. Historically, multipoint connections were used to attach central CPs to distributed dumb terminals. In today's LAN environments, multipoint connections link many network devices in various configurations. What are the basic LAN topologies? The three simple LAN topologies that are combined to form any practical topology are known as basic LAN topologies.They are, Bus Topology, Ring Topology and Star Topology. Explain Bus Topology. The physical Bus topology is the simplest and most widely used of the network designs. It consists of one continuous length of cable (trunk) and a terminating resistor (terminator) at each end. Data communication message travels along the bus in both directions until it is picked up by a workstation or server NIC. If the message is missed or not recognized, it reaches the end of the cabling and dissipates at the terminator. Figure 27: Bus Topology http://www. psexam. com Page 21 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam All nodes on the bus topology have equal access to the trunk.This is accomplished using short drop cables or direct T-connectors. The number of devices and the length of the trunk can be easily expanded. Figure 28: Bus Topology Network connected with other network Figure 29: T Connector Page 22 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 30: Different Cable Terminators What are the advantages of bus topology? The advantages of physical bus topology are: a. It uses established standards and it is relatively easy to install. b. It requires less media than other topologies. http://www. psexam. com Page 23 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What are the disadvantages of bus topology?The disadvantages of bus topology are: a. The bus networks are difficult to reco nfigure, especially when the acceptable number of connections or maximum distances have been reached. b. They are also difficult to troubleshoot because everything happens on a single media segment. This can have dangerous consequences because any break in the cabling brings the network to its knee. What is Ring Topology? The physical ring topology is a circular loop of point-to-point links. Each device connects directly to the ring or indirectly through and interface device or drop cable. Message travel around the ring from node to node in a very organized manner.Each workstation checks the message for a matching destination address. If the address doesn't match the node simply regenerates the message and sends it on its way. If the address matches, the node accepts the message and sends a reply to the originating sender. Figure 31: Ring Topology Page 24 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Point out the major advantages of Ring Topology. The advantages of ring topologies are: a. They are very easy to troubleshoot because each device incorporates a repeater. b. A special internal feature called beaconing allows troubled workstations to identify themselves quickly. Point out the disadvantages of Ring Topology.The disadvantages of ring topologies are: a. It is considerably difficult to install and reconfigure ring topology b. Media failure on unidirectional or single loop causes complete network failure. Explain Star Topology. The physical star topology uses a central controlling hub with dedicated legs pointing in all directions – like points of a star. Each network device has a dedicated point-to-point link to the central hub. This strategy prevents troublesome collisions and keeps the lines of communications open and free of traffic. Figure 32: Star Topology http://www. psexam. com Page 25 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam This topology, obviously, require a great deal of cabling.This design provides an excellent p latform for reconfiguration and troubleshooting. Changes to the network are as simple as plugging another segment into the hub and a break in the LAN is easy to isolate and doesn't affect the rest of the network. Figure 33: Star Topology What are the benefits of Star Topology? The benefits of star topology are: a. Relatively easy to configure. b. Easy to troubleshoot c. Media faults are automatically isolated to the failed segment. What are the disadvantages of Star Topology? The disadvantages are considered as follows: a. Requires more cable than most topologies. b. Moderately difficult to install. Page 26 http://www. sexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What are the popular topologies other than basic Topologies? Apart from basic topologies some other topologies worth considering are: mesh topology (every device connected to all other devices), Cellular Topology (wireless point to pint and multipoint design), Tree Topology (Hierarchical connections of devices), Hyb rid topology (combination of two or more basic topologies). Figure 34: Tre Topology Figure 35: Mesh Topology Network Standards What is a Networking Standard? Protocol (the logical component) and Topology (the physical component) is combined together to create a networking standard.These standards are developed and controlled by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). What are the four major industry standards? The four major industry standards are (a) Ethernet, Token Ring, ARCNet and FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface). http://www. psexam. com Page 27 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What is an Ethernet? The Ethernet topology was developed at the University of Hawaii to connect computers on the various Islands. It was radio based design. Later, Robert Metacalfe went to Xeros's Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) laboratories and eliminated the radio portion and changed to co-axial cabling. Ethernet is ne of the most popular LAN technologies in use tod ay covering more than 85% of the networks. Ethernet system consists of three basic elements: 4. The physical medium use to carry Ethernet signals between computers on the network 5. A set of rules (protocols) embedded in each Ethernet interface that will decide how multiple computers on the network will have access to the data on the medium. 6. An Ethernet frame that consists of a standardized set of bits used to carry data over the system. How an Ethernet Worked? The operation of Ethernet can be described in simple terms as follows: Each computer on the Ethernet Network, also known as a node, operates independently of all other nodes.All nodes attached to an Ethernet are connected to a shared medium over which the Ethernet signals travel serially, one data bit at a time. To send data a station first listens to the channel and when the channel is idle the station transmits its information in the form of an Ethernet frame, or packet. The Ethernet rules (protocol) are defined in such a way that every node gets a fair amount of frame transmission opportunity. Page 28 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 36: Ethernet Network As each Ethernet frame is sent out on the shared medium, the Ethernet interfaces inside the node look at the destination address.The interfaces compare the destination address of the frame with their own address. The Ethernet interface with the same address as the destination address in the frame will read the entire frame and all other network interfaces will ignore the information. What is Medium Access Control of Ethernet? The set of rules which ensures that every node in an Ethernet gets a fair amount of frame transmission opportunity, are called the â€Å"Medium Access Control† mechanism. The Medium Access Control mechanism is based on a system called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMD/CD). Explain Ethernet Frame. The heart of Ethernet system is the Ethernet Frame, which is used to deliver information between the computers.The frame consists of a set of bits organized into several fields. These fields include address fields, a data field and an error checking field that checks the integrity of the bits in the frame to make sure that the frame has arrived intact. http://www. psexam. com Page 29 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam List some advantages of Ethernet. Ethernet's major advantages are: 1. It is an inexpensive way to achieve high speed LAN transmissions (10 to 100 MB/s) 2. It is a proven technology that supports various writing configurations. 3. It works well with a large number of LAN and micro-tomainframe applications. 4. It is easy to install. What are the disadvantages of Ethernet Cabling?The Ethernet cabling ahs the following disadvantages: 1. Ethernet is not a high-level performer in high-load environments. This protocol (CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) can slow down dramatically if hundreds of works tations are competing for the same cabling trunk 2. Its linear bus cabling system can sometimes make it difficult to isolate problems. Page 30 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What is ARCNet? The Attached Resource Computer Network (ARCNet) standard was created in 1977 at the Data Point Corporation by a scientist – John Murphy. ARCNet uses the token-passing protocol over a star and bus topology.The star and bus topology combines the flexibility of a star with the simplicity and throughput of a bus. Thus, ARCNet standard has a unique protocol/topology combination: token-passing protocol and Distributed star/bus topology. Figure 37: ARCNet Board and Card http://www. psexam. com Page 31 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam List the advantages of ARCNet. Here are some of the ARCNet's advantages: 1. It is extremely reliable. 2. ARCNet is easy to install and troubleshoot. 3. It has an excellent track record of interoperability for those using AR CNet components from various manufacturers. 4. ARCNet supports a variety of cable types including coaxial, UTP and Fiber Optics. 5.It is inexpensive and built to stay that way. What are the disadvantages of ARCNet? Here are some disadvantages of ARCNet: 1. Standard ARCNet is very slow (2. 5 Mb/s). It is almost seven times slower than Token Ring. 2. ARCNet was not designed with interconnectivity in mind. For many installations, it's difficult to go beyond the confines of single LAN. How does a Token-Passing Protocol works? The token-passing protocol relies on a control signal called the token. A token is a 24-bit packet that circulates throughout the network from NIC to NIC in an orderly fashion. If a workstation wants to transmit a message, first it must seize the token.At that point, the workstation has complete control over the communications channel. The existence of only one token eliminates the possibility of signal collisions. This means that only one station can speak at a ti me. Explain Logical Ring Physical Star topology for Token-Passing Standard. It is sure that any break in the ring at any point will interrupt communications for all machines. To solve this problem, IBM developed a modified ring topology, which they called the logical ring Page 32 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam physical star. The central point of the physical star configuration is Token Ring hub called the multi-station access unit (MSAU, pronounced as masow).Workstations and servers attached to the MSAU through special STP adapter cables. IBM converted stars into a logical ring by connecting all MSAU hubs together through special ring-in (RI) and ring-out (RO) ports. Figure 38: Network with MSAU List some most useful advantages of Token Ring. Here are Token ring's most useful advantages: a. It offers excellent throughput under high-load conditions. b. Token Ring facilitates LAN-to-LAN mainframe connections especially for interfacing with IBM's broa der connectivity strategies. c. It has built-in troubleshooting mechanisms such as beaconing and auto-reconfiguration and may now be used with UTP cabling. http://www. psexam. com Page 33 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam d.It has the most reliable protocol (token-passing), the most trouble-free configuration (physical star) and the fastest connectivity scheme (r or 16 mb/s). Point out the disadvantages of Token Ring. Few of the disadvantages of Token Ring are: a. Token Ring is very expensive. All topology components cost much more than other more popular standards. b. It is relatively proprietary. Token Ring's complexity is built into the hardware components. This means hat you need to choose a manufacturer and stick with it. c. Engineers must have considerable expertise to manage and troubleshoot token ring components. What do you mean by Beaconing and AutoReconfiguration?When a station does not receive a message from its nearest active upstream neighbor, it sends out a wa rning, otherwise known as a beacon. This beacon alerts everyone that something is wrong and helps to isolate the failure domain. When beacon occurs, the ring will attempt to fix the problem without your intervention. This process of self-healing is called auto-reconfiguration. Network Architecture What is Network Architecture? When two or more computer are connected with one another for the purpose of communicating data electronically, besides physical connection of computers, communication devices and system servers, a well defined standard known as architecture is required to establish cohesive communication between devices in Network. Page 34 http://www. psexam. om Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What are the popular Network Architectures? The most popular architectures are: a. ISO Open System Architecture (OSI) b. IBM's System Network Architecture (SNA) Explain ISO's OSI Architecture The Open System Interconnection (OSI) is a standard reference model for communication between two end users in a network. It is used in developing products and understanding networks which means commonly used Internet product and services fit within the model. The OSI model describes seven layers of related functions that needed at each end, when a message is sent from one party to another party in a network.Each layer has its own set of special related function as follows: Figure 39: ISO's OSI Architecture http://www. psexam. com Page 35 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Layer 7 – Application Layer: Application programs that use the network. Layer 6 – Presentation Layer: Standardize data presented to the application. Layer 5 – Session Layer: Manages sessions between applications Layer 4 – Transport Layer: Provides error detection and correction Layer 3 – Network Layer: Provides data delivery across the physical connection Layer 2 – Data Link Layer: Provides data delivery across the physical connection Layer 1  œ Physical Layer: Defines the physical network media.Explain IBM's SNA Architecture SNA is a computer networking architecture that was developed by IBM to provide a network structure for IBM mainframe, midrange, and personal computer systems. SNA defines a set of proprietary communication protocols and message formats for the exchange and management of data on IBM host networks. Figure 40: OSI an SNA Comparision Page 36 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam SNA can be used for the following types of tasks: ? Terminal access to mainframe and midrange computer applications. File transfer of data between computer systems. Printing of mainframe and midrange data on SNA printers.Program-to-program communications that allow applications to exchange data over the network. ? ? ? SNA can be implemented in a networking infrastructure that uses either a hierarchical or peer-to-peer model. Networking Model Explain Peer-to-Peer Networking Model. A networking model whe re each workstation has equivalent capabilities and responsibilities is known as peer-to-peer model. There is no central server in this network and computers join hands to share files, printers and Internet access. It is practical for workgroups of a dozen or less computers making it common environments, where each PC acts as an independent workstation that stores data on its own disk but which can share it with all other PCs on the network.Software for peer-to-peer network is included with most modern desktop operating systems such as Windows and Mac OS. Explain Client/Server Networking Model. A networking model where one or more powerful computers (servers) provide the different network services and all other user's computers (clients) access those services to perform user's tasks is known as client/server networking model. Client-server networking model became popular in the late 1980s and early 1990s as many http://www. psexam. com Page 37 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Ex am applications were migrated from centralized minicomputers and mainframes to networks of persona computers.The design of applications for a distributed computing environment required that they effetely be divided into two parts: client (front end) and server (back end). The network model on which they were implemented mirrored this client-server model with a user's PC (the client) typically acting as the requesting machine and a more powerful server machine to which it was connected via either a LAN or a WAN acting as the supplying machine. It requires special networking operating system. It provides user level security and it is more expensive. Network and Internet Terminologies NICs Network interface cards, commonly referred to as NICs are used to connect a PC to a network.The NIC provides a physical connection between the networking medium and the computers' internal bus, and is responsible for facilitating an â€Å"access method† to the network. Most NICs are designed f or a particular type of network, protocol and media, although some can serve multiple networks. Figure 41: LAN NIC Card Page 38 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Hubs/Repeaters Hubs/Repeaters are used to connect together two or more network segments of any media type. In larger design, signal quality begins to deteriorate as segment exceeds their maximum length. A hub provides the signal amplification required to allow a segment to be extended a greater distance. Passive hub simply forwards any data packets they receive over one port from one workstation to all their remaining ports.Active hubs, also sometimes referred to as â€Å"multiport repeaters†, regenerate the data bits in order to maintain a strong signal. Figure 42: Hub Bridges The bridge function is to connect separate homogeneous networks. Bridges map the Ethernet address of the nodes residing on each network segment and allow only necessary traffic to pass through the bridge. When a packet is received by the bridge, the bridge determines the destination and source segments. If the segments are different, then the packet is â€Å"forwarded† to the correct segment. Bridges are also called â€Å"store-and-forward† device because they look at the whole Ethernet packet before making filtering or forwarding decisions. ttp://www. psexam. com Page 39 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 43: Bridge Router Routing achieved commercially popularity in the mid – 1980s – at a time when large-scale Internetworking began to replace the fairly simple, homogeneous environments. Routing is the act of moving information across an Internetwork from a source to a destination. It is often contrasted with bridging, which perform a similar function. Routers use information within each packet to route it from one LAN to another, and communicate with each other and share information that allows them to determine the best route through a complex ne twork of many LANs.Page 40 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 44: Router Switches LAN switches are an expansion of the concept in LAN bridging, which controls data flow, handles transmission errors, provides physical addressing, and manages access to the physical medium. Switches provide these functions by using various link-layer protocols. LAN switches can link four, six, ten or more networks together. A storeand-forward switch, on the other hand, accepts and analyses the entire packet before forwarding it to its destination. Figure 45: Switch http://www. psexam. com Page 41 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam TransceiversTransceivers are used to connect nodes to the various Ethernet media. Most computers and network interface cards contain a builtin 10BaseT or 10Base2 transceiver, allowing them to be connected directly to Ethernet without requiring an external transceiver. Many Ethernet devices provide an AUI connector to allow the user to connect to any media type via an external transceiver. Figure 46: Transceiver Gateway A Gateway is a device such as a mini or microcomputer capable of operating on a stand alone basis but which also provides connection for communication with the other computers and access to shared resources. Page 42 http://www. psexam. comContribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 47: Gateway PC Proxy Serer Also called a proxy or application level gateway. It is an application that breaks the connection between sender and receiver. Thus, it helps us to prevent hacker from obtaining Internet address and detail of a private network. Firewall Firewall is a method for keeping a network secure. It is mostly used in giving users access to the Internet in a secure fashion as well as to separate a company's public web server from its internal network. Node A node is a hardware device or group of devices or station in a network that link one or more other unit to the network. Wireless NetworkThe m ost and latest wireless LANs use electromagnetic airwaves either infrared or radio frequency to communicate information from one point to another without relaying on a physical connection. Radio waves are often referred to as radio carriers because they simply perform the function of delivering energy to a remote receiver. The http://www. psexam. com Page 43 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam data being transmitted is superimposed on the radio carrier so that it can be accurately extracted at the receiving end. Multiple radio carriers can exist in the same space at the same time without interfering with each other if the radio waves are transmitted on different radio frequencies. Figure 48: Nework with Wireless StationsIn a typical WLAN configuration, a transmitter/receiver (transceiver) device, called an Access Point (AP), connects to the wired network from a fixed location using standard Ethernet cable. The Access Point receives, buffers, and transmits data between the WLAN and the Page 44 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam wired network infrastructures. A single Access Point can support a small group of users and can function within a range of less than one hundred to several hundred feet. The Access Point (or the antenna attached to the Access Point) is usually mounted high but may be mounted essentially anywhere that is practical as long as the desired radio coverage is obtained.The wireless network, printers or other peripherals can be shared through a connected PC. The devices then communicate using a set of reserved high-frequency radio waves. An Access Point device connects to a DSL or cable modem and enables high-rate (broadband) Internet access for the entire network. Internet Internet is the large worldwide network of computes that facilitates data communication services, file transfer, electronic mail, World Wide Web and newsgroup with common protocols. WWW Figure 49: Tim Berners Lee http://www. psexam. com Pa ge 45 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam The WWW is the brainchild of Tim Berners Lee a CERN who had the idea of creating an electronic web of research information.The web is currently the fastest growing Internet information system, with new resources being added regularly. The web relies on a set of protocols, conventions and software to operate. The web is a distributed system of delivering linked documents over the Internet. It is called a distributed system because information can reside on different computers around the world. Yet be easily linked together using hypertext. The web uses hypertext to create links from together using hypertext. The web uses hyperte3xt to create links from one resource to another. A hypertext link is usually displayed by highlighted and underlined text on the page. A hypertext link or hyperlink can also be graphic that acts as a button linking to another resource. IRCInternet Relay Chat (IRC) is a system for sending public and private messa ge to other users in â€Å"real time† – that is, your message appears on the recipient's screen as soon as you type it. Figure 50: Yahoo Chat Page 46 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam CU-SeeMe CU-SeeMe is a video conferencing system that allows users to send and receive sound and pictures simultaneously over the Internet. Figure 51: CU SeeMe http://www. psexam. com Page 47 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 52: CU SeeMe Conferencing Telnet It is a protocol or set of rules that enables a computer to connect another computer in network. It is also known as a remote login. The telnet operates on client-server principle. Figure 53: Telnet Screen Page 48 http://www. psexam. comContribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Gopher The ghoper is a protocol designed to search, retrieve and display documents from remote sites on the Internet. The Ghoper was created as a piece of software to utilize some of the services that were becoming available on the Internet. HTML HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language. It is a standard coding language used to create all web documents (pages). http://www. psexam. com Page 49 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Browsers Figure 54: Different Browsers Logo A browser is the Internet Client software that acts as an interface between the user and the inner-workings of the Internet, specifically the WWW.We can find graphical web browser that displays multimedia content of text, graphics, audio and video, and text web Page 50 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam browser that displays only text. Internet Explorer, Netscape, Firefox are graphical web browser and Lynx is a well known text browser. Figure 55: Mozilla Firefox Figure 56: Netscape Navigator http://www. psexam. com Page 51 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 57: Internet Explorer Figure 58: Google Chrome Page 52 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Ex am Dialup Connection Dialup connection is a means of connecting user to another computer (ISP) or a network such as the Internet with a modem equipped computer. IP AddressIP Address is an identifier for particular machine on a particular network. It is part of scheme to identify computers on the Internet. IP addresses are a set of numbers separated with periods. Figure 59: IP Address Structure Figure 60: IP Address and Subnet Mask http://www. psexam. com Page 53 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Domain Name A domain name is a way to identify and locate computers connected to the Internet. This is a text name of a computer in network or Internet. Domain names are converted to IP Addresses to locate computers and resources. URL URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator that identifies a particular Internet resource.URL help the user to locate web page, gopher service, library catalog and image or text file locations. URLs are the standard addressing system of the www. A complete URL provides the web client with all the information it needs to contact a server and make a request for information. URLs are divided into three basic parts: Example: http://www. psexam. com/download. htm a. Protocol (http://) – The information appearing before the colon in any URL indicates the type of information server or protocol. For example http:// indicates that the server to be connected is a www server. b. Domain name (www. psexam. com) – The second piece of information is the address of the server. In this example psexam. om is the name of the machine at PS Exam in world wide web. c. Resource name (download. htm) – The third piece of information is the path to the actual document requested. In this example the URL indicates that the document in the system directory and is named download. htm. Web Browsing or Surfing Browsing or Surfing is the process of visiting different web sites on the Internet hosted by various organizations. Page 54 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Search Engine The search engine is an interactive tool to help people locate information via the www and it is interface between the user and underlying database.The most popular search engines are Alta Vista Exite, Lycos, Yahoo! , Google, Ask etc. Figure 61: Yahoo, Ask, MSN, Google Search Engines http://www. psexam. com Page 55 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 62: Alta Vista Search Engine Figure 63: Lycos Page 56 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Meta Search Engine A web meta searcher is a tool that helps users to locate information available via the World Wide Web. Web meta-serchers provide a single interface that enables users to search many different search engines, indexes and databases simultaneously. Some meta search engines are Albany. net, Clnet (search. om), Cyberland, Eureaka! , Savvysearch and so on. Figure 64: Meta Search Engine Internet Access We can access to the Inte rnet in one of two basic ways, dialing into an Internet Service Provider's (ISP) computer or with a direct connection to an ISP. Connecting to ISP by dialing their hunting number (phone number) is called Dial-up connection. We require a username, password and ISP's hunting number to configure Dial up Connection. http://www. psexam. com Page 57 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Extranet An Extranet is a type of Intranet (Internal TCP/IP Network) that has been selectively opened to a firm's suppliers, customers. IntranetAn intranet can be defined as a network connecting an affiliated set of clients using standard internet protocols, esp. TCP/IP and HTTP or as an IP-based network of nodes behind a firewall, or behind several firewall connected by secure, possibly virtual, networks. Web Index A web index is designed to assist users in locating information on the World Wide Web. Web indexes are also referred to as catalogs or directories. A web index collects and organizes resour ces available via the www. Some of the web indexes are Yahoo! , Megallan, Apollo etc. Figure 65: Web Index Page 58 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam HypertextThe hypertext allows for the integration of text, graphics, audio and video on a web pate. This can make it very easy to browse and very exciting to view. A web page may have colorful graphics integrated with textual information. Links on a web page may take you to other web pages, recorded sonds, or digital video clips. A single click on any hyperlink allows you to follow the link to the specified resource. Figure 66: Hypertext and Hyper Link Email Electronic Mail (Email) is one of the most popular & powerful communication tools on the Internet. It is an efficient and effective means of network communication. Email allows you to communicate with people across the globe via electronic media (computer). Email addressAn Email Address identifies a person and the computer for the purpose of exchangin g electronic mail message. Example: [email  protected] com http://www. psexam. com Page 59 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam The email address contains three parts: a. Username – The admin in example. b. Domain name of organization – The psexam in example c. Top Level Domain – The com in example Signature Figure 67: Email Client Interface Inbox It is an element of Email Application which collects all incoming mails. Outbox It is an element of Email Application which collects all outgoing mails, if it is created and sent in offline. Page 60 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam TrashThis is an element of Email Application that holds all the deleted emails. Figure 68: New Email Message CC CC stands for Courtesy copy or Carbon Copy. It is an element of Email used to specify the additional recipients when the mail sent needs to be acknowledged to them. http://www. psexam. com Page 61 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam BCC BCC stands for Blank Carbon Copy. It is similar to CC but the address of other receivers will not be shown to the receiver. Reply A reply is the response of an email you receive. After you read a mail and need to reply it you can use this feature. Forward A mail received can be sent to be other recipients known as forwarding. AttachmentsThe documents created in other applications such as word, excel can be sent along with the email message. These documents that are sent with email is known as attachment. Documents, audio/video files, Zip files etc. can be sent as attachment along with email message. Bounced When a mail sent can't reach to destination and returns back, this is known as bounced. This happens often when the recipient's address is wrong or the server at the recipient's end is down or recipient's inbox is full. Netiquette It is essential for all users on the internet to recognize that they are responsible for their own individual actions while using the net. Netiquette is simply the use of common courtesy and polite behavior while using the net. EmoticonsThe convention of expressing feeling or a joke in symbolic form by user in Email or Chatting for example 🙂 for smiling 😉 for winking 🙠 for frowning etc are emoticons. Page 62 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 69: Emoticons http://www. psexam. com Page 63 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Wish you best of luck! Page 64 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Visit New PS Exam Better Interface and greater possibility to share and interact. Don’t forget to subscribe! http://new. psexam. com ICT Trends – A Blog about blogging Trace the path of Suresh Khanal in blogging, promoting and monetize blogs. http://www. icttrends. com http://www. psexam. com Page 65